2023 Oct/Nov · Paper 22 · Q4 (d)6 marksLiving standards
2023 Oct/Nov · Paper 22 · Q5 (a)1.5 marksPopulation
2023 May/June · Paper 12 · Q241 markPoverty
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2023 May/June · Paper 22 · Q1 (a, f, g, h)18 marksLiving standards · Population · Poverty
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2022 Oct/Nov · Paper 12 · Q251 markLiving standards
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2022 May/June · Paper 12 · Q241 markLiving standards
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References only, not question text. Open Official paper ↗ where Cambridge publishes the paper,
or see the official Cambridge past-papers page; for other papers, ask your
school. “Paper 42” means Paper 4, variant 2.
Practice questions
Original questions written by HomiLabs in the style of the exam, with answers and mark schemes. They are not
Cambridge past paper questions and have not been reviewed by Cambridge. Try each one before opening the answer.
Q1Population · Core · Paper 1 style · 1 mark
(a)Each option gives a country's birth rate, death rate and net migration rate, all per 1 000 of the population per year. Which combination would increase the country's population?[1]
Show answer
(a) A birth rate 12, death rate 10, net migration −1
Population change = birth rate − death rate + net migration: A 12 − 10 − 1 = +1 per 1 000 (increase). B = −1, C = −2 and D = −2 per 1 000 (decreases). C is the main trap: it has the highest natural increase (+6) but net emigration of 8 outweighs it.
Q2Population · Core · Paper 2 style · 6 marks
(a)Define birth rate.[2]
(b)Explain two reasons why birth rates are often higher in low-income countries than in high-income countries.[4]
Show answer
(a) The number of live births per 1 000 of the population in a year.
1 mark: number of (live) births. 1 mark: per 1 000 population per year.
(b) Any two, developed: children work on family farms or bring in income, so families want more; high infant mortality means parents have more children to ensure some survive; lack of pensions means parents rely on children in old age; limited access to or knowledge of family planning; lower female education and early marriage; cultural or religious traditions favouring large families.
For each of two reasons: 1 mark for the reason, 1 mark for development.
Q3Population · Core · Paper 2 style · 6 marks
Millions of Pakistani workers live and work in Gulf countries such as Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates.
(a)Define net migration.[2]
(b)Explain two reasons why workers emigrate from Pakistan to Gulf countries.[4]
Show answer
(a) The difference between the number of people entering a country to live (immigrants) and the number leaving it to live elsewhere (emigrants) over a period.
1 mark: immigration minus emigration. 1 mark: over a period of time / people moving to live.
(b) Higher wages abroad, so they can earn more and send money home; more job opportunities, e.g. in construction, when unemployment is high at home; demand for specific skills such as engineering or nursing; established communities and recruitment networks make moving easier.
For each of two reasons: 1 mark for the reason, 1 mark for development.
Q4Population · Core · Paper 2 style · 4 marks
In one year, Country X had the following population data.Population at the start of the year: 40 millionBirths: 1.0 millionDeaths: 0.3 millionImmigrants: 0.15 millionEmigrants: 0.25 million
(a)Calculate Country X's net migration for the year.[1]
(b)Calculate the population at the end of the year.[2]
(c)Calculate the birth rate per 1 000 of the population, using the population at the start of the year.[1]
Show answer
(a) −0.1 million (net emigration of 100 000)
0.15 − 0.25 = −0.1 million (B1; sign or 'net outflow' needed).
(b) 40.6 million
M1: 40 + 1.0 − 0.3 − 0.1. A1: 40.6 million.
(c) 25 per 1 000
1.0 ÷ 40 × 1 000 = 25 per 1 000 (B1).
Q5Population · Standard · Paper 1 style · 1 mark
(a)[1]
Show answer
(a) B 1.5% per year
Natural increase = 24 − 9 = 15 per 1 000 = 15 ÷ 1 000 × 100 = 1.5% a year. D (15%) treats 15 per 1 000 as 15 per 100; C (3.3%) adds the two rates instead of subtracting (33 per 1 000).
Q6Population · Standard · Paper 1 style · 1 mark
(a)Which is most likely to result from an ageing population?[1]
Show answer
(a) C an increase in government spending on pensions and healthcare
An ageing population means more people over retirement age, so spending on state pensions and healthcare rises. The working-age share usually falls (A), demand for healthcare rises rather than falls (B), and ageing is usually caused by, not followed by, a low birth rate (D).
Q7Population · Standard · Paper 2 style · 6 marks
A country's population is divided into age groups as follows.Aged 0–14: 36 millionAged 15–64: 60 millionAged 65 and over: 4 million
(a)Calculate the dependency ratio as the number of dependants per 100 people of working age. Give your answer to 1 decimal place.[2]
(b)Explain two economic problems that may be caused by the country's high proportion of young dependants.[4]
Show answer
(a) 66.7 dependants per 100 people of working age
M1: (36 + 4) ÷ 60 × 100. A1: 66.7.
(b) Any two, developed: high government spending on schools and child healthcare, which has an opportunity cost or needs higher taxes; working-age people have to support many dependants, so household saving is low and investment is limited; pressure on housing, food and other resources; in future, many young people entering the labour force may face unemployment if jobs are not created.
For each of two problems: 1 mark for the problem, 1 mark for development.
Q8Population · Standard · Paper 2 style · 6 marks
(a)Define optimum population.[2]
(b)Explain what is meant by a country being under-populated, and why new technology might change its optimum population.[4]
Show answer
(a) The size of population that, with the country's existing resources and technology, gives the highest output (real GDP) per head.
1 mark: population size giving maximum output/income per head. 1 mark: given existing resources and technology.
(b) Under-populated means the population is smaller than the optimum: there are too few workers to make full use of the resources, so a larger population would raise output per head. New technology raises the productivity of resources, so more people can be supported at the highest output per head; the optimum population therefore increases.
1 mark: population below the optimum. 1 mark: resources not fully used / more people would raise output per head. 1 mark: technology raises productivity. 1 mark: so optimum population rises.
Q9Population · Challenge · Paper 2 style · 5 marks
The table shows the average years of schooling of women and the birth rate in five countries.Country | Average years of schooling of women | Birth rate (per 1 000)A | 3.1 | 36B | 5.4 | 29C | 7.8 | 22D | 10.2 | 14E | 11.6 | 16
(a)Identify the country with the highest birth rate.[1]
(b)Analyse the relationship between the average years of schooling of women and the birth rate.[4]
Show answer
(a) Country A
B1: A (36 per 1 000).
(b) Expected: an inverse relationship – the more years of schooling women have, the lower the birth rate. Evidence: A has 3.1 years and a birth rate of 36, while D has 10.2 years and 14. Reason: educated women marry later, have careers and know about family planning. Exception: E has more schooling (11.6) than D but a higher birth rate (16 v 14), so other factors also matter.
1 mark: inverse/negative relationship stated. 1 mark: comparative evidence from the table. 1 mark: economic reason (later marriage, work, opportunity cost of children, family planning). 1 mark: exception identified (E compared with D).
Q10Population · Challenge · Paper 2 style · 8 marks
In some high-income countries, more than one in four people is now aged 65 or over.
(a)Identify two causes of an ageing population.[2]
(b)Discuss whether or not an ageing population is harmful to an economy.[6]
Show answer
(a) Falling birth rate; rising life expectancy / falling death rate (due to better healthcare, nutrition); emigration of young workers.
1 mark each for any two causes.
(b) It creates costs but also some benefits and can be managed.
Up to 3 marks for 'harmful': higher dependency ratio, so a smaller share of workers supports more retired people; higher government spending on pensions and healthcare, needing higher taxes or borrowing; shortage of workers and lower labour mobility; slower growth. Up to 3 marks for 'not necessarily': older people can work longer, bringing experience; new markets for goods and services for older people; older people do voluntary work and childcare; the problem can be reduced by raising the retirement age, immigration or investment in labour-saving technology. Max 5 without a conclusion; 1 mark for a justified conclusion.
Q11Population · Challenge · Paper 2 style · 8 marks
Money sent home by Pakistanis working abroad is one of the country's largest sources of foreign currency.
(a)Explain what remittances are.[2]
(b)Discuss whether or not a country benefits from the emigration of its workers.[6]
Show answer
(a) Money sent by migrants working in another country back to their families in their home country.
1 mark: money/income sent home. 1 mark: by people working abroad (migrants) to their families.
(b) Benefits through remittances and lower unemployment, but loses skills.
Up to 3 marks for 'benefits': remittances raise family incomes and spending, and pay for education and housing; inflow of foreign currency helps the current account; reduces unemployment at home; returning migrants bring skills and savings. Up to 3 marks for 'does not': brain drain – loss of doctors, engineers and other skilled workers whose training was paid for at home; smaller labour force and tax base; families separated; dependence on remittances that may fall if the host economy slows. Max 5 without a conclusion; 1 mark for a justified conclusion.
Q12Living standards · Core · Paper 1 style · 1 mark
(a)Which is NOT one of the measures used to calculate the Human Development Index (HDI)?[1]
Show answer
(a) D the percentage of the population with internet access
The HDI combines life expectancy (health), mean and expected years of schooling (education) and GNI per head (income). Internet access is not included, although it may indicate living standards.
Q13Living standards · Core · Paper 2 style · 4 marks
(a)Define real GDP per head.[2]
(b)Explain why real GDP per head, rather than total GDP, is used to compare living standards between countries.[2]
Show answer
(a) The total output (GDP) of a country adjusted for inflation (at constant prices), divided by the population.
1 mark: GDP adjusted for inflation / constant prices. 1 mark: divided by population / average per person.
(b) Countries have very different population sizes; a large country can have a high total GDP but a low output per person, so dividing by population shows how much output is available on average for each person.
1 mark: populations differ. 1 mark: per head shows average output/income available to each person.
Q14Living standards · Core · Paper 2 style · 6 marks
Country P | Real GDP: $80 billion | Population: 20 millionCountry Q | Real GDP: $300 billion | Population: 150 million
(a)Calculate the real GDP per head of each country.[2]
(b)Explain two reasons why Country P may not have higher living standards than Country Q, despite its higher real GDP per head.[4]
Show answer
(a) P: $4 000; Q: $2 000
1 mark: 80 billion ÷ 20 million = $4 000. 1 mark: 300 billion ÷ 150 million = $2 000.
(b) Any two, developed: income may be very unequally distributed in P, so most people are poorer than the average suggests; Q may have a larger informal economy or more subsistence production not counted in GDP; P's output may include defence or pollution clean-up rather than consumer goods; P may have longer working hours, more pollution or worse public services; prices (cost of living) may be higher in P.
For each of two reasons: 1 mark for the reason, 1 mark for development.
Q15Living standards · Core · Paper 2 style · 5 marks
(a)State the three dimensions of human development measured by the Human Development Index (HDI).[3]
(b)Explain one advantage of the HDI over real GDP per head as a measure of living standards.[2]
Show answer
(a) Health (a long and healthy life – life expectancy at birth); education (knowledge – mean and expected years of schooling); standard of living (income – GNI per head).
1 mark each: health/life expectancy; education/years of schooling; income/GNI per head.
(b) It includes non-income measures such as health and education, so it gives a broader picture of people's well-being than income alone.
1 mark: includes health and/or education. 1 mark: so it reflects quality of life, not just income/output.
Q16Living standards · Standard · Paper 1 style · 1 mark
(a)[1]
Show answer
(a) C $1 500
GDP per head = 360 000 000 000 ÷ 240 000 000 = $1 500. A, B and D come from errors in the powers of ten when converting billions and millions (e.g. B treats a billion as 100 million).
Q17Living standards · Standard · Paper 2 style · 5 marks
In a country, nominal GDP per head rose from Rs 400 000 to Rs 460 000 in one year. Over the same year, the general price level rose by 20%.
(a)Calculate the percentage increase in nominal GDP per head.[1]
(b)Calculate real GDP per head in the second year at first-year prices. Give your answer to the nearest rupee.[2]
(c)Explain what has happened to living standards, on average, during the year.[2]
Show answer
(a) 15%
(460 000 − 400 000) ÷ 400 000 × 100 = 15% (B1).
(b) Rs 383 333
M1: 460 000 ÷ 1.20. A1: Rs 383 333.
(c) Real GDP per head has fallen (from Rs 400 000 to about Rs 383 333, roughly 4%), because prices rose faster than nominal income, so the average person can buy fewer goods and services; average living standards have fallen.
1 mark: real GDP per head fell / prices rose faster than income. 1 mark: so purchasing power and average living standards fell.
Q18Living standards · Standard · Paper 2 style · 6 marks
(a)Explain two limitations of the HDI as a measure of living standards.[4]
(b)Suggest one other indicator that could be used to measure living standards, and explain why it is useful.[2]
Show answer
(a) Any two, developed: it is an average, so it does not show inequality between groups or regions; it ignores other aspects of well-being such as political freedom, crime, pollution, housing and working hours; years of schooling do not measure the quality of education; data in low-income countries may be inaccurate; GNI per head ignores the informal economy.
For each of two limitations: 1 mark for the limitation, 1 mark for development.
(b) e.g. percentage of households with access to clean drinking water – shows whether basic needs are met and affects health. Also accept: doctors per 1 000 people, housing quality, pollution levels, literacy rate, ownership of consumer durables.
1 mark: a valid indicator not in the HDI. 1 mark: why it reflects well-being.
Q19Living standards · Standard · Paper 2 style · 6 marks
(a)State two non-monetary indicators of living standards.[2]
(b)Explain why an unequal distribution of income can make real GDP per head a misleading measure of the living standard of a typical household.[4]
Show answer
(a) Any two of: life expectancy; literacy rate; years of schooling; infant mortality rate; access to clean water; doctors per 1 000 people; housing quality; pollution levels.
1 mark each for any two non-monetary indicators.
(b) Real GDP per head is an average. If a small group of rich people receives a large share of income, the average is pulled up, so most households earn much less than the average; GDP per head can rise while the incomes of the poor stay the same, so it overstates the living standard of a typical household.
1 mark: GDP per head is an average/mean. 1 mark: high incomes of a few raise the average. 1 mark: most households have below-average income. 1 mark: growth may go mainly to the rich, so typical living standards may not rise.
Q20Living standards · Challenge · Paper 2 style · 5 marks
The table shows real GDP per head and life expectancy in five countries.Country | Real GDP per head ($) | Life expectancy (years)V | 1 200 | 62W | 3 500 | 67X | 8 000 | 74Y | 15 000 | 72Z | 40 000 | 82
(a)Identify the country with the highest life expectancy.[1]
(b)Analyse the relationship between real GDP per head and life expectancy.[4]
Show answer
(a) Country Z
B1: Z (82 years).
(b) Expected: a positive relationship – countries with higher real GDP per head tend to have longer life expectancy. Evidence: V has $1 200 and 62 years; Z has $40 000 and 82 years. Reason: higher income pays for better diet, healthcare, clean water and sanitation. Exception: Y has higher GDP per head than X ($15 000 v $8 000) but lower life expectancy (72 v 74), perhaps because of inequality or poor healthcare spending.
Q21Living standards · Challenge · Paper 2 style · 8 marks
In many low-income countries, a large share of output is produced in the informal economy (unregistered small businesses) or by families growing food for their own use.
(a)Explain why a large informal economy can cause real GDP per head to understate living standards.[2]
(b)Discuss whether or not real GDP per head is a better measure than the HDI for comparing living standards between countries.[6]
Show answer
(a) Output from informal businesses and subsistence farming is not recorded in official GDP, so measured GDP per head is lower than the real value of goods and services people actually enjoy.
1 mark: informal/subsistence output is not recorded. 1 mark: so measured GDP per head is lower than actual output/consumption.
(b) Each has strengths; the HDI is usually broader, but GDP per head is simpler.
Up to 3 marks for GDP per head being better: data are widely available and simple to calculate; measures the goods and services available; can be updated frequently; income allows people to buy health and education. Up to 3 marks for HDI being better: includes health and education, not just income; two countries with the same income can have very different life expectancy and schooling; less distorted by a small rich group's income alone. Both ignore inequality, informal output and environmental damage. Max 5 without a conclusion; 1 mark for a justified conclusion.
Q22Living standards · Challenge · Paper 2 style · 8 marks
Over ten years, a country's real GDP per head rose by 50% as new factories and mines opened. Air pollution in its cities also increased.
(a)Identify two possible costs of economic growth for living standards.[2]
(b)Discuss whether or not rising real GDP per head always raises living standards.[6]
Show answer
(a) Any two of: pollution and environmental damage; depletion of natural resources; longer working hours / stress; greater inequality; congestion; loss of traditional communities.
1 mark each for any two costs.
(b) Usually raises material living standards, but not always for everyone.
Up to 3 marks for 'raises': more goods and services per person; higher incomes buy better food, housing and healthcare; more tax revenue for schools and hospitals; lower unemployment and poverty. Up to 3 marks for 'not always': gains may go to a small group, so inequality rises; pollution damages health; longer hours reduce leisure; the extra output may be capital goods, defence or exports rather than consumer goods; prices of necessities may rise. Max 5 without a conclusion; 1 mark for a justified conclusion.
Q23Poverty · Core · Paper 1 style · 1 mark
(a)Which statement describes absolute poverty?[1]
Show answer
(a) B being unable to afford basic necessities such as food, shelter and clothing
Absolute poverty means a person cannot meet basic needs. A and C describe relative poverty, which compares a person's income with others in the same country; unemployment (D) can cause poverty but does not define it.
Q24Poverty · Core · Paper 2 style · 6 marks
(a)Define relative poverty.[2]
(b)Explain two causes of poverty.[4]
Show answer
(a) Having an income that is well below the average (e.g. below a set percentage of median income) in the country, so the person cannot afford the standard of living that most people enjoy.
1 mark: income low compared with others / below a % of average or median income. 1 mark: in that country/society, can't afford a normal standard of living.
(b) Any two, developed: unemployment – no wage income; low wages from low-skilled jobs; lack of education and skills, which limits job opportunities; ill health or disability preventing work; old age with no pension; large family size, so income is shared among many; living in an area with few jobs; natural disasters destroying crops or homes.
For each of two causes: 1 mark for the cause, 1 mark for explaining how it leads to low income.
Q25Poverty · Standard · Paper 2 style · 4 marks
In a town, the median household monthly income is Rs 85 000. A household is counted as being in relative poverty if its income is below 60% of the median. Five households have monthly incomes of: Rs 42 000, Rs 55 000, Rs 48 500, Rs 61 000 and Rs 51 000.
(a)Calculate the relative poverty line for the town.[1]
(b)State how many of the five households are in relative poverty.[1]
(c)Explain why a household could be in relative poverty but not in absolute poverty.[2]
Show answer
(a) Rs 51 000
85 000 × 60 ÷ 100 = Rs 51 000 (B1).
(b) 2 (Rs 42 000 and Rs 48 500)
B1: 2 — the household on exactly Rs 51 000 is not below the line.
(c) Relative poverty compares a household's income with others; it may have enough income to buy food, shelter and clothing (so it is not in absolute poverty) but still be well below the town's typical income.
1 mark: relative poverty is measured against others' income. 1 mark: the household can still meet basic needs.
Q26Poverty · Standard · Paper 2 style · 6 marks
A government is planning a cash transfer scheme that pays a monthly sum to women in the poorest households.
(a)Identify two consequences of poverty for a household.[2]
(b)Explain two policies, other than cash transfers, that a government could use to reduce poverty.[4]
Show answer
(a) Any two of: poor diet/malnutrition; poor health and shorter life expectancy; children leaving school early; poor housing; lack of access to clean water; debt.
1 mark each for any two consequences.
(b) Any two, developed: free or subsidised education and training, raising skills and future earnings; free healthcare, so illness does not stop people working; a national minimum wage, raising pay of low-paid workers; policies to create jobs, e.g. spending on infrastructure; progressive taxation to redistribute income; subsidised food or housing.
For each of two policies: 1 mark for the policy, 1 mark for explaining how it reduces poverty.
Q27Poverty · Challenge · Paper 2 style · 8 marks
(a)Explain one way in which poverty can be passed from one generation to the next.[2]
(b)Discuss whether or not providing free education is the most effective way to reduce poverty.[6]
Show answer
(a) Poor families may not be able to afford schooling, or need children to work, so children leave school with few skills; as adults they get low-paid jobs, so their own children are also poor (the poverty cycle).
1 mark: children of poor families get less education / poorer health. 1 mark: so they earn low incomes as adults and the cycle continues.
(b) Education is vital in the long run, but other measures are needed too.
Up to 3 marks for 'most effective': raises skills and productivity, so future earnings rise; breaks the poverty cycle; increases occupational mobility; educated women tend to have smaller, healthier families. Up to 3 marks for 'not the most effective': takes many years to have an effect; families may still keep children at home to work, so free tuition is not enough; quality of schools may be poor; graduates need jobs to be available; people in poverty now need immediate help (cash transfers, food, healthcare); old or disabled people do not benefit. Max 5 without a conclusion; 1 mark for a justified conclusion.
Q28Differences in economic development · Core · Paper 1 style · 1 mark
(a)Which characteristic is most typical of a country at a low level of economic development?[1]
Show answer
(a) A a large share of workers employed in the primary sector
Low-income countries usually have many workers in agriculture and other primary industries, with low productivity. A low birth rate (B), plenty of capital per worker (C) and a large tertiary sector (D) are typical of more developed countries.
Q29Differences in economic development · Standard · Paper 2 style · 5 marks
The table shows the percentage of the labour force employed in each sector in two countries.Country | Primary (%) | Secondary (%) | Tertiary (%)R | 58 | 14 | 28S | 4 | 22 | 74
(a)Country R has a labour force of 12 million. Calculate the number of workers employed in R's tertiary sector.[1]
(b)Explain two reasons why Country S is likely to be more economically developed than Country R.[4]
Show answer
(a) 3.36 million
12 × 28 ÷ 100 = 3.36 million (B1).
(b) Most of R's workers are in the primary sector, often in low-productivity subsistence farming, whereas S has few workers in farming, suggesting farming is highly mechanised and productive; S's large tertiary sector (finance, education, health, tourism) indicates high incomes and demand for services; S's workers are likely to be more skilled and use more capital, so output per worker and incomes are higher.
For each of two reasons: 1 mark for using the data, 1 mark for explaining the link to development (productivity, incomes, skills, capital).
Q30Differences in economic development · Challenge · Paper 2 style · 8 marks
(a)Explain how differences in labour productivity can cause differences in economic development between countries.[2]
(b)Discuss whether or not differences in saving and investment are the main reason why some countries are more economically developed than others.[6]
Show answer
(a) Where workers produce more output per hour (because of more skills, capital and technology), total output and incomes per head are higher, so the country can afford better living standards.
1 mark: higher output per worker. 1 mark: leads to higher incomes/GDP per head and development.
(b) Important, but other factors such as education, health, population growth and institutions also matter.
Up to 3 marks for 'main reason': high saving provides funds for investment in machinery and infrastructure; more capital per worker raises productivity and output; low-income countries are stuck in a cycle of low income → low saving → low investment. Up to 3 marks for other reasons: education and health (human capital); rapid population growth spreading income thinly; reliance on primary products with volatile prices; political stability, corruption and the rule of law; access to trade, technology and foreign direct investment; natural resources and climate. Max 5 without a conclusion; 1 mark for a justified conclusion.
Similar questions
Questions that test the same subtopic in different years, grouped so you can work on one skill at a time.
References only: find each question in its paper (official link where available, otherwise through your school).
