2022 Oct/Nov · Paper 22 · Q8 (a(ii))1 markObservations
2022 May/June · Paper 22 · Q66 marksSelf-reports
2022 May/June · Paper 22 · Q7 (b(i))2 marksSelf-reports
2022 May/June · Paper 22 · Q8 (a(i), a(ii))3 marksSelf-reports
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References only, not question text. Open Official paper ↗ where Cambridge publishes the paper,
or see the official Cambridge past-papers page; for other papers, ask your
school. “Paper 42” means Paper 4, variant 2.
Practice questions
Original questions written by HomiLabs in the style of the exam, with answers and mark schemes. They are not
Cambridge past paper questions and have not been reviewed by Cambridge. Try each one before opening the answer.
Q1Self-reports · Core · Paper 2 style · 4 marks
A researcher plans a questionnaire to investigate mobile phone use among college students in Lahore.
(a)Write one closed question the researcher could include in the questionnaire.[1]
(b)Write one open question the researcher could include in the questionnaire.[1]
(c)Explain one weakness of using closed questions in this study.[2]
Show answer
(a) 'Do you use your phone during meals with your family? Yes / No'
1 mark: a question with fixed response options relevant to phone use.
(b) 'Describe how using your phone affects the time you spend with your family.'
1 mark: a question that allows participants to answer in their own words; must not be answerable with yes/no.
(c) Students must choose from fixed answers that may not fit their real experience (e.g. they use the phone only sometimes), so the data may lack validity and detail.
1 mark: forced choice / lack of detail; 1 mark: linked to phone use.
Q2Self-reports · Core · Paper 2 style · 4 marks
(a)Write a rating-scale question that could be used to measure how stressed teachers feel at work. Your scale must have labelled anchor points.[2]
(b)Explain one strength of using a rating scale rather than an open question.[2]
Show answer
(a) 'How stressed do you feel at work most days?' 1 = not at all stressed, 2, 3, 4, 5 = extremely stressed.
1 mark: question about stress with a numerical scale; 1 mark: both ends (anchor points) labelled.
(b) It gives numerical (quantitative) data, so the mean stress of teachers in different schools can be compared easily and objectively.
Dr Malik asks recently widowed women in Multan to talk about their experiences. She has no list of questions and simply follows what each woman wants to talk about.
(a)Identify which type of interview Dr Malik is using.[1]
(b)Explain one reason why this type of interview is suitable for this topic.[2]
Show answer
(a) An unstructured interview.
1 mark: unstructured (no fixed questions, follows the conversation).
(b) Grief is a sensitive and individual experience; an unstructured interview allows each widow to talk freely about what matters to her, building rapport and giving detailed, valid data.
1 mark: flexibility / rapport / depth; 1 mark: linked to the sensitive topic.
Q4Self-reports · Standard · Paper 2 style · 6 marks
(a)Describe structured interviews and unstructured interviews, using any examples.[6]
Show answer
(a) A structured interview uses a fixed list of questions asked in the same order to every participant, e.g. asking every patient the same ten questions about symptoms; it is easy to compare and replicate but the interviewer cannot follow up interesting answers. An unstructured interview has no fixed questions beyond a topic: the interviewer follows the conversation, e.g. a therapist asking a client to talk about childhood; it gives rich, detailed data but answers cannot easily be compared, and interviewer bias is more likely.
Up to 3 marks for each type: 1 for a description, 1 for an example, 1 for an elaboration (strength/weakness or feature such as standardisation, replicability, rapport, depth).
Q5Self-reports · Standard · Paper 2 style · 6 marks
A researcher interviews parents in Karachi face to face about how they discipline their children.
(a)Explain what is meant by 'social desirability' in self-report research.[2]
(b)Explain why social desirability is a particular problem in this study.[2]
(c)Suggest one way to reduce this problem.[2]
Show answer
(a) When participants give answers that make them look good or match social norms, rather than the truth.
1 mark: answers to appear favourable/acceptable; 1 mark: rather than truthful, so data are invalid.
(b) Asking parents face to face how often they shout at or smack their children is sensitive; parents may underreport harsh discipline to avoid being judged by the interviewer.
1 mark: identifies the sensitive behaviour; 1 mark: direction of bias (under-reporting) linked to face-to-face interview.
(c) Use an anonymous postal or online questionnaire instead of a face-to-face interview, so parents feel their answers cannot be traced back to them.
1 mark: anonymity/confidentiality/online questionnaire/filler questions; 1 mark: explanation of why it reduces the bias.
Q6Self-reports · Standard · Paper 2 style · 6 marks
A hypothetical study interviews patients at a diabetes clinic in Islamabad about why they do or do not follow their doctor's advice.
(a)Explain one strength of using a semi-structured interview in this study.[2]
(b)Explain one weakness of using a semi-structured interview in this study.[2]
(c)Suggest one ethical issue the researcher must consider and how to deal with it.[2]
Show answer
(a) The interviewer can ask set questions to all patients, giving some comparable data, but also follow up interesting answers (e.g. why a patient stopped taking medication), giving more detail.
1 mark: combination of fixed questions and flexibility; 1 mark: linked to patients.
(b) Different follow-up questions are asked to different patients, so answers are harder to compare, and the interviewer's own views may influence which points are explored (interviewer bias).
1 mark: less standardised / interviewer bias / time-consuming; 1 mark: linked to the study.
(c) Confidentiality: patients may disclose personal health information, so their names must not be recorded and data stored securely.
1 mark: issue (confidentiality, privacy, right to withdraw, protection from distress); 1 mark: how to deal with it.
Q7Self-reports · Standard · Paper 2 style · 4 marks
Hamza is writing a questionnaire about public transport in Karachi. Three of his questions are:1 Don't you agree that the new bus service is excellent?2 Are the buses cheap and clean? Yes / No3 Do you often use public transport? Yes / No
(a)Identify two problems with the questions written by Hamza.[2]
(b)Rewrite question 3 so that it produces clearer data.[2]
Show answer
(a) Question 1 is a leading question ('Don't you agree…'), pushing respondents towards 'yes'. Question 2 is a double-barrelled question asking about two things at once (price and cleanliness).
1 mark each: leading question (Q1); double-barrelled (Q2). Accept: Q3 uses ambiguous terms ('often').
(b) 'How many times did you use public transport in the last 7 days? 0 / 1–3 / 4–6 / 7 or more'
1 mark: removes the vague word 'often'; 1 mark: gives specific, mutually exclusive response options.
Q8Self-reports · Challenge · Paper 2 style · 5 marks
A researcher in Jeddah has written a questionnaire to measure attitudes to healthy eating.
(a)Explain how the researcher could test the reliability of her questionnaire using the test–retest method.[3]
(b)Explain one reason why a reliable questionnaire may still not be valid.[2]
Show answer
(a) Give the same questionnaire to the same participants twice, with a gap of a few weeks (long enough that they don't remember their answers but not so long that their real attitudes change). Correlate the two sets of scores; a strong positive correlation (e.g. above +0.8) shows the questionnaire is reliable.
1 mark: same participants, same questionnaire, twice; 1 mark: suitable time gap with justification; 1 mark: compare/correlate scores – a strong positive correlation indicates reliability.
(b) It may consistently measure something other than intended – e.g. items about 'healthy eating' may really measure knowledge of nutrition rather than what people actually eat, so answers are consistent but not accurate.
1 mark: consistency ≠ accuracy; 1 mark: example in context (e.g. social desirability gives the same false answers each time).
Q9Self-reports · Challenge · Paper 2 style · 14 marks
A psychologist wants to investigate the relationship between sleep habits and concentration in university students.
(a)Describe how this study could be conducted as a self-report using a questionnaire. Include details of the sampling technique, the types of questions with examples, and how the data would be analysed.[10]
(b)Explain one weakness of your plan and suggest how it could be improved.[4]
Show answer
(a) A possible plan: opportunity or stratified sample of 100 university students (e.g. equal numbers of first- and final-year students) from different faculties of a university in Lahore; online anonymous questionnaire with standardised instructions and consent page; closed questions (e.g. 'How many hours a night do you usually sleep on weekdays? less than 5 / 5–6 / 7–8 / more than 8'), rating scales (e.g. 'Rate your ability to concentrate in lectures: 1 = very poor to 7 = excellent'), and open questions (e.g. 'Describe what stops you sleeping before exams'); filler questions to reduce demand characteristics; pilot study to check clarity; quantitative data analysed as means/medians and bar charts by year group; qualitative answers coded into themes; ethics – informed consent, right to withdraw, confidentiality, debrief with sleep advice.
Mark points: sampling technique and sample detail; recruitment; questionnaire format (online/paper, anonymous); at least two question types with examples; rating scale with anchors; filler questions/pilot; standardised instructions; analysis (descriptive statistics, graphs, thematic coding); ethics. Level 4 (9–10): a detailed, well-reasoned, coherent plan covering all the required features, with clear operationalisation and justified choices. Level 3 (6–8): a clear plan with most required features and some detail; minor omissions. Level 2 (3–5): a basic plan; several features missing or vague. Level 1 (1–2): brief, muddled or largely irrelevant. 0: no creditworthy response.
(b) Weakness: self-reported sleep hours may be inaccurate because students guess or overestimate, reducing validity. Improvement: ask students to keep a sleep diary for a week, or wear an activity tracker that records sleep, and compare the measures (triangulation).
1 mark: identify a weakness of the plan; 1 mark: explain it in context; 1 mark: suggest an improvement; 1 mark: explain how the improvement helps.
Q10Self-reports · Challenge · Paper 2 style · 5 marks
A hypothetical telecommunications company with 2,000 employees in branches across Pakistan wants to find out how employees feel about their managers.
(a)Explain one strength and one weakness of collecting data with questionnaires rather than interviews in this study.[4]
(b)The response rate was 18 %. Calculate how many questionnaires were returned.[1]
Show answer
(a) Strength: questionnaires can be sent to all 2,000 employees across the country quickly and cheaply, and anonymity may make employees more honest about their managers. Weakness: there is no chance to clarify unclear questions or follow up answers, and response rates may be low, so those who reply (e.g. very unhappy staff) may not be representative.
2 marks for strength (identify + link to the large company / anonymity); 2 marks for weakness (identify + link).
(b) 360
0.18 × 2000 = 360.
Q11Case studies · Core · Paper 2 style · 5 marks
A neuropsychologist in Lahore studies a man who lost the ability to recognise faces after a stroke.
(a)Define 'case study'.[1]
(b)Explain one strength of the case study method for studying this patient.[2]
(c)Explain one weakness of the case study method for studying this patient.[2]
Show answer
(a) An in-depth investigation of a single individual, or a small group, usually using several methods.
1 mark: detailed study of one person/small group (or one event/organisation).
(b) It gives detailed, rich information about a rare condition that could not be studied with a large sample, and can be followed over time to see changes.
1 mark: depth / rare cases / longitudinal; 1 mark: linked to the patient.
(c) The findings come from one unique person whose brain damage and life history are different from others, so they cannot be generalised to other people.
1 mark: generalisability / researcher bias / hard to replicate; 1 mark: linked to the patient.
Q12Case studies · Core · Paper 2 style · 4 marks
A researcher studied a survivor who was trapped for three days after a building collapsed, to understand how she coped.
(a)Explain why the case study method was used rather than an experiment.[2]
(b)Identify one type of data, qualitative or quantitative, the researcher is likely to collect most and justify your answer.[2]
Show answer
(a) The situation (surviving a building collapse) is rare and could not ethically be created by a researcher, so the only way to study it is to investigate the few people it has happened to in depth.
1 mark: rare / naturally occurring event; 1 mark: cannot be manipulated ethically in an experiment.
(b) Qualitative, because the researcher wants a detailed account of the survivor's thoughts, feelings and experiences, which are best captured in words.
1 mark: qualitative (accept quantitative with justification, e.g. symptom scores); 1 mark: justification.
Q13Case studies · Standard · Paper 2 style · 6 marks
A school psychologist in Islamabad carries out a case study of a 12-year-old boy who refuses to attend school.
(a)Explain what is meant by 'triangulation' in a case study.[2]
(b)Suggest three different sources of data the researcher could use to triangulate in this case study.[3]
(c)Explain why triangulation increases the validity of the case study.[1]
Show answer
(a) Using several different methods or sources of data (e.g. interviews, observations, tests, records) to study the same case, and checking whether they agree.
1 mark: several methods/sources; 1 mark: comparing them to check consistency/validity.
(b) An interview with the boy about how he feels in class; an observation of his behaviour in lessons; school records of attendance and grades (or a questionnaire for his parents/teachers, or a psychometric test).
1 mark each for three different, appropriate sources linked to the boy.
(c) If different sources give the same picture, the conclusion does not rely on one possibly biased source.
1 mark: agreement between sources makes conclusions more accurate/less dependent on one method's bias.
Q14Case studies · Standard · Paper 2 style · 4 marks
A researcher spent eighteen months visiting one family of refugees settling in Peshawar, interviewing them and observing their daily life.
(a)Explain why the researcher's close relationship with the family could be a problem in this case study.[2]
(b)Explain one ethical issue that is particularly important in this case study.[2]
Show answer
(a) After months of contact she may become less objective and interpret the family's behaviour in a way that supports her own expectations (researcher bias), reducing validity.
1 mark: loss of objectivity / bias; 1 mark: effect on interpretation in this case.
(b) Confidentiality: a detailed account of one family could easily identify them in a small community, so names and identifying details must be changed.
1 mark: issue (confidentiality/privacy/right to withdraw); 1 mark: why it is especially important in a case study.
Q15Case studies · Challenge · Paper 2 style · 14 marks
A psychologist wants to carry out a case study of a child who is gifted at mathematics.
(a)Describe how this case study could be conducted. Include at least two methods of data collection, how long it would last, and one ethical consideration.[10]
(b)Explain one strength of your plan.[4]
Show answer
(a) A possible plan: one gifted 9-year-old girl in a Lahore school; volunteer/parental consent; longitudinal over one school year; methods: semi-structured interviews with the child (e.g. 'Tell me what you enjoy doing in maths lessons'), interviews or questionnaires with parents and teachers; structured observations in class (event sampling for categories such as 'asks a question', 'helps a classmate'), standardised tests of ability at the start and end; school records; triangulation of findings; qualitative data analysed into themes, quantitative test and observation data summarised; ethics – informed consent from parents and assent from child, right to withdraw, confidentiality (pseudonym), protection from stress from being labelled.
Mark points: participant and how chosen; duration/longitudinal; at least two methods described in detail with examples; triangulation; types of data and analysis; ethics specific to a child. Level 4 (9–10): a detailed, well-reasoned, coherent plan covering all the required features, with clear operationalisation and justified choices. Level 3 (6–8): a clear plan with most required features and some detail; minor omissions. Level 2 (3–5): a basic plan; several features missing or vague. Level 1 (1–2): brief, muddled or largely irrelevant. 0: no creditworthy response.
(b) Strength: using interviews, observations and test scores (triangulation) means that conclusions about the girl's abilities are supported by several sources, reducing the effect of bias from any one method (e.g. a teacher's opinion), so the case study has higher validity. The year-long duration also shows how her behaviour changes over time.
1 mark: identify; 1–2 marks: explain with reference to the plan; 1 mark: why it improves the study.
Q16Observations · Core · Paper 2 style · 4 marks
A researcher wants to observe how waiting staff in a busy Karachi restaurant deal with rude customers.
(a)Explain the difference between a participant and a non-participant observation, using this study as an example.[2]
(b)Explain one strength of an overt observation in this study.[2]
Show answer
(a) In a participant observation the researcher joins the group, e.g. works as a waiter alongside the staff; in a non-participant observation the researcher watches without joining in, e.g. sits as a customer and records the staff's behaviour.
1 mark for each type with a link to the restaurant.
(b) The staff know they are being observed and have agreed, so the study is ethical (informed consent and no invasion of privacy).
1 mark: ethical/informed consent; 1 mark: linked to the restaurant staff.
Q17Observations · Core · Paper 2 style · 3 marks
(a)Explain one difference between a naturalistic and a controlled observation.[2]
(b)The researcher used a one-way mirror to observe children in a playroom set up at a university. State one advantage of this.[1]
Show answer
(a) A naturalistic observation watches behaviour in its usual setting without changing anything (e.g. children in their own classroom); a controlled observation takes place in a setting arranged by the researcher, often a laboratory, where variables are standardised.
1 mark for each type; must show the contrast (normal setting vs researcher-controlled).
(b) The children cannot see the observer, so their behaviour is less likely to change because they know they are being watched.
Q18Observations · Standard · Paper 2 style · 6 marks
(a)Describe event sampling and time sampling, using any examples.[6]
Show answer
(a) Event sampling: the observer records every time a particular behaviour occurs, e.g. tallying each time a child hits another in the playground; useful for infrequent behaviours but may be hard if many events happen at once. Time sampling: the observer records behaviour only at set intervals, e.g. noting what a shopper is doing every 30 seconds; reduces the amount of data, but behaviour between intervals is missed.
Up to 3 marks for each: description, example, elaboration (strength/weakness).
Q19Observations · Standard · Paper 2 style · 6 marks
In a hypothetical study, observers stood near the checkout in a Lahore hypermarket and secretly recorded how shoppers behaved while waiting in queues.
(a)Explain one reason why the observation was covert.[2]
(b)Explain one ethical problem with this covert observation and suggest whether it is acceptable.[2]
(c)Suggest two behavioural categories the observers could use. Each must be operationalised.[2]
Show answer
(a) If shoppers knew they were being watched they might change how they behave in the queue (e.g. queue more politely), so a covert observation reduces demand characteristics and gives more valid data.
(b) Shoppers did not give informed consent; however, the observation took place in a public place where people would expect to be seen by strangers, so it is usually considered acceptable as long as individuals are not identified.
1 mark: no consent/deception; 1 mark: justification about public place and anonymity.
(c) 'Pushing in' – joining the queue in front of someone who arrived earlier. 'Complaining' – making a verbal comment about waiting time to another person.
1 mark each for operationalised observable categories.
Q20Observations · Challenge · Paper 2 style · 14 marks
A researcher wants to investigate road rage in drivers waiting at traffic signals.
(a)Describe how this study could be conducted as a structured observation. Include the setting, the type of observation, behavioural categories, the sampling of behaviour and how reliability would be checked.[10]
(b)Explain one weakness of your plan.[4]
Show answer
(a) A possible plan: naturalistic, non-participant, covert observation of drivers at a busy signal-controlled junction in Islamabad during rush hour (e.g. 5–7 p.m., weekdays over two weeks); two observers positioned on the pavement (or video recording from a public place, number plates not recorded); event sampling of each car arriving at a red light; operationalised categories: 'hooting' (horn used while stopped at red light), 'aggressive gesture' (hand gesture towards another driver), 'jumping the light' (crossing stop line after light turns red), 'calm waiting' (no hooting or movement until green); tally chart; quantitative data as frequencies compared between drivers of different vehicle types or sexes if visible; inter-rater reliability – both observers code the same cars and correlate tallies, training beforehand with practice video; ethics – public place, no identification of drivers.
Mark points: setting and time; naturalistic/controlled; participant/non-participant; overt/covert with justification; behavioural categories operationalised; event or time sampling; recording method (tally/video); inter-rater reliability; data type and analysis; ethics. Level 4 (9–10): a detailed, well-reasoned, coherent plan covering all the required features, with clear operationalisation and justified choices. Level 3 (6–8): a clear plan with most required features and some detail; minor omissions. Level 2 (3–5): a basic plan; several features missing or vague. Level 1 (1–2): brief, muddled or largely irrelevant. 0: no creditworthy response.
(b) Weakness: observers can see behaviour but not the reasons for it – a driver who hoots may be warning another driver rather than being aggressive, so the category may be misinterpreted, reducing validity. This could be improved by stopping a sample of drivers at a nearby petrol station to interview them, or by refining the category definitions.
1 mark: identify weakness; 1–2 marks: explain with reference to the plan; 1 mark: consequence for validity/reliability or improvement.
Q21Correlations · Core · Paper 2 style · 4 marks
A researcher in Singapore asks teenagers how many hours they spend playing violent video games each week and gives them a questionnaire measuring aggression.
(a)Write a non-directional hypothesis for this study.[2]
(b)Explain why this study is a correlation and not an experiment.[2]
Show answer
(a) There will be a correlation between the number of hours spent playing violent video games per week and the score on an aggression questionnaire.
1 mark: states a relationship/correlation without direction; 1 mark: both co-variables operationalised (e.g. hours per week, questionnaire score).
(b) Neither variable is manipulated by the researcher: both violent video game hours and aggression are measured as they already are, so we are looking for a relationship between two co-variables rather than the effect of an IV on a DV.
1 mark: no manipulation of an IV; 1 mark: two measured co-variables.
Q22Correlations · Standard · Paper 2 style · 5 marks
A head teacher in Hyderabad found a correlation coefficient of −0.72 between the number of days students were absent and their final exam scores (hypothetical data).
(a)Describe what a correlation coefficient of −0.72 shows about the relationship between the two variables.[2]
(b)Explain what a correlation coefficient of +0.05 would have shown instead.[1]
(c)Explain one reason why the head teacher cannot conclude that absence causes lower exam scores.[2]
Show answer
(a) A fairly strong negative correlation: as the number of days absent increases, exam scores tend to decrease.
1 mark: strength (fairly strong/strong); 1 mark: negative direction described in context.
(b) There is almost no relationship between absence and exam scores.
1 mark: no (or extremely weak) correlation.
(c) A third variable such as illness, family problems or poor motivation may cause both absence and low scores.
1 mark: correlation cannot show cause/effect; 1 mark: suitable third variable or reverse direction.
Q23Correlations · Standard · Paper 2 style · 4 marks
(a)Identify the type of correlation in each statement:(i) The more coffee a student drinks, the fewer hours they sleep.(ii) The more hours a nurse works overtime, the higher her stress score.[2]
(b)Explain one strength of using a correlation to study the link between overtime and stress in nurses.[2]
Show answer
(a) (i) Negative correlation; (ii) positive correlation.
1 mark each.
(b) It would be unethical to make nurses work extra hours to see if they become stressed; a correlation allows the relationship to be studied using the hours they already work.
1 mark: ethical/practical (variables cannot be manipulated) or can show the strength of the relationship; 1 mark: linked to nurses.
Q24Correlations · Challenge · Paper 2 style · 14 marks
A psychologist wants to investigate whether there is a relationship between how much people exercise and how happy they feel.
(a)Describe how this study could be conducted as a correlation. Include how each co-variable would be measured, the sample and how the results would be presented.[10]
(b)Explain one strength of your plan and one reason why it could not show that exercise causes happiness.[4]
Show answer
(a) A possible plan: volunteer or opportunity sample of 60 adults aged 18–60 attending a gym and a community centre in Karachi; co-variable 1 – self-reported average daily minutes of exercise over the last month (or a fitness tracker's daily step count over one week); co-variable 2 – score on a happiness/wellbeing rating questionnaire (e.g. ten items rated 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree, total 10–50); standardised instructions, informed consent, confidentiality; scores plotted on a scatter graph with exercise on the x-axis and wellbeing score on the y-axis; look for a positive correlation; directional hypothesis stated; ethics – right to withdraw, debrief.
Mark points: both co-variables operationalised; measurement tools with example items; sampling technique and size; procedure/standardisation; hypothesis; scatter graph with axes; direction of expected correlation; ethics. Level 4 (9–10): a detailed, well-reasoned, coherent plan covering all the required features, with clear operationalisation and justified choices. Level 3 (6–8): a clear plan with most required features and some detail; minor omissions. Level 2 (3–5): a basic plan; several features missing or vague. Level 1 (1–2): brief, muddled or largely irrelevant. 0: no creditworthy response.
(b) Strength: measuring exercise with a fitness tracker gives objective data, so it is not affected by people overestimating how much they exercise. Causation: happier people may simply be more motivated to exercise, or a third variable such as free time or income could increase both, so the direction of cause is unknown.
2 marks: strength identified and explained with reference to the plan; 2 marks: causation problem explained with reverse causality or a third variable.
Q25Experiments · Core · Paper 2 style · 5 marks
In a hypothetical experiment in a university laboratory in Lahore, 20 students chewed gum while learning and recalling a list of 25 words and another 20 students did not chew gum.
(a)Identify the independent variable and the dependent variable in this experiment.[2]
(b)Identify the type of experiment used.[1]
(c)Explain one strength of this type of experiment.[2]
Show answer
(a) IV: whether the students chewed gum or not during the test. DV: the number of words correctly recalled.
1 mark each; DV must be operationalised.
(b) A laboratory experiment.
1 mark: laboratory experiment (controlled setting, IV manipulated).
(c) Extraneous variables such as noise and test time can be controlled, so differences in recall are more likely to be caused by chewing gum (cause and effect).
1 mark: control of variables; 1 mark: allows a causal conclusion in context.
Q26Experiments · Standard · Paper 2 style · 4 marks
A researcher compared the general knowledge of children in a village in Gilgit-Baltistan that had recently received internet access with children in a similar village that had not.
(a)Explain why this is a natural experiment.[2]
(b)Explain one weakness of a natural experiment in this study.[2]
Show answer
(a) The researcher did not manipulate the IV (whether the village had internet access or not); the difference already existed naturally and she only measured its effect.
1 mark: IV not manipulated by the researcher; 1 mark: occurs naturally, linked to internet access.
(b) Participants cannot be randomly allocated to conditions, so the two villages may differ in other ways (e.g. wealth, schooling), which could explain differences in children's general knowledge.
1 mark: no random allocation/confounding variables/no control; 1 mark: example linked to the villages.
Q27Experiments · Challenge · Paper 2 style · 14 marks
A researcher wants to find out whether offering free food samples increases sales of a new product.
(a)Describe how this field experiment could be conducted. Include the IV, the DV, the design, and controls.[10]
(b)Explain one weakness of your plan and how it could be improved.[4]
Show answer
(a) A possible plan: field experiment in a large Islamabad supermarket; IV – whether a free-sample stall for a new biscuit is present at the end of an aisle (condition A) or absent (condition B), alternating on matched weekdays over four weeks; DV – number of packets of the biscuit sold per hour from the store's sales records (or the proportion of shoppers passing who pick up a packet, observed by two researchers); independent measures (different shoppers each day); controls – same price, same shelf position, same times (5–8 p.m.), same days of the week, same stall assistant with a standard script; shoppers unaware (covert); ethics – public place, no identification of individuals, debrief not possible so no personal data kept.
Mark points: field setting; IV operationalised with two conditions; DV operationalised; design (independent/repeated) with justification; controls (time, day, price, script); sampling of participants; procedure; ethics. Level 4 (9–10): a detailed, well-reasoned, coherent plan covering all the required features, with clear operationalisation and justified choices. Level 3 (6–8): a clear plan with most required features and some detail; minor omissions. Level 2 (3–5): a basic plan; several features missing or vague. Level 1 (1–2): brief, muddled or largely irrelevant. 0: no creditworthy response.
(b) Weakness: other factors that change from day to day, such as weather or special offers in another aisle, could affect sales and cannot be fully controlled in a field setting, reducing internal validity. Improvement: run the study over more days, alternating conditions randomly, and note any special events so those days can be excluded.
1 mark: identify; 1 mark: explain in context; 1 mark: improvement; 1 mark: how it helps.
Q28Physiological measures · Core · Paper 2 style · 4 marks
A researcher wants to investigate whether rickshaw drivers in Lahore are more stressed during rush hour than at quieter times.
(a)Name two physiological measures the researcher could use to measure stress in the drivers.[2]
(b)Explain one strength of using physiological measures rather than self-report to measure stress.[2]
Show answer
(a) Heart rate and cortisol level in saliva (accept blood pressure, skin conductance/galvanic skin response).
1 mark each for two valid physiological measures.
(b) Physiological measures are objective: a driver cannot easily fake their heart rate, so the data are not affected by social desirability (e.g. not wanting to admit being stressed).
1 mark: objective / not affected by demand characteristics or social desirability; 1 mark: linked to drivers.
Q29Physiological measures · Standard · Paper 2 style · 5 marks
(a)Explain what an fMRI scan measures.[2]
(b)Explain one weakness of using fMRI scans in psychological research.[2]
(c)Explain how an MRI scan (structural) differs from an fMRI scan.[1]
Show answer
(a) It measures changes in blood flow (oxygenated blood) in the brain, which shows which areas are more active while a person performs a task.
1 mark: blood flow/oxygen use; 1 mark: shows brain activity in specific areas during a task.
(b) Participants must lie still inside a noisy, enclosed scanner, so tasks are unlike real life (low ecological validity) and some people find it stressful, which may change brain activity.
1 mark: weakness (low ecological validity, cost, small samples, only shows correlation, stressful); 1 mark: explanation.
(c) A structural MRI shows the physical structure of the brain (e.g. size of regions or grey matter), whereas fMRI shows activity over time.
1 mark: structure vs function/activity.
Q30Physiological measures · Challenge · Paper 2 style · 6 marks
In a hypothetical study in Dhaka, participants gave a short speech to an audience. Their heart rate was measured with a monitor and they also rated their anxiety from 1 to 10.
(a)Explain why the researcher measured the participants' heart rate as well as asking them to rate their anxiety.[2]
(b)Explain one problem with using heart rate as a measure of anxiety.[2]
(c)The mean heart rate rose from 72 beats per minute before the speech to 99 beats per minute during it. Calculate the percentage increase. Give your answer to 1 decimal place.[2]
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(a) The rating is subjective and participants might under- or overstate their anxiety; heart rate gives an objective measure of arousal, so the two can be compared to check validity.
(b) Heart rate can rise for reasons other than anxiety, such as excitement, physical movement or caffeine, so a high heart rate does not definitely mean the participant was anxious.
1 mark: not specific to anxiety; 1 mark: example of another cause.
(c) 37.5 %
M1: (99 − 72) ÷ 72 × 100; A1: 37.5 %.
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