2022 May/June · Paper 22 · Q3 (b(ii))2 marksHuman participants
2022 May/June · Paper 22 · Q7 (b(ii))3 marksHuman participants
2022 May/June · Paper 22 · Q8 (b(ii))1 markHuman participants
2022 May/June · Paper 22 · Q9 (a)2 marksAnimal research
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References only, not question text. Open Official paper ↗ where Cambridge publishes the paper,
or see the official Cambridge past-papers page; for other papers, ask your
school. “Paper 42” means Paper 4, variant 2.
Practice questions
Original questions written by HomiLabs in the style of the exam, with answers and mark schemes. They are not
Cambridge past paper questions and have not been reviewed by Cambridge. Try each one before opening the answer.
Q1Human participants · Core · Paper 2 style · 3 marks
(a)State what is meant by 'informed consent'.[1]
(b)A researcher secretly observes how people queue at a bank in Lahore. Explain why she cannot obtain informed consent in this study.[2]
Show answer
(a) Agreement to take part in a study given by a participant who has been told enough about the aims and procedure to make a knowledgeable decision.
B1: agreement to participate given with full knowledge of what the study involves.
(b) The observation is covert; if she asked customers for consent they would know they were being watched and might change how they queue, so the behaviour would no longer be natural.
1 mark: covert/naturalistic observation of strangers. 1 mark: asking would cause participant reactivity / demand characteristics.
Q2Human participants · Core · Paper 2 style · 2 marks
(a)State two pieces of information that should be given to participants in a debrief.[2]
Show answer
(a) Any two of: the true aim of the study; whether any deception was used and why; that their data will be kept confidential; that they may withdraw their data; how to contact the researcher or find out the results; reassurance that their behaviour was normal.
1 mark each for any two.
Q3Human participants · Core · Paper 2 style · 4 marks
(a)Hypothetical study: Dr Malik gives a 20-minute questionnaire about exam stress to 60 Grade 11 students in Faisalabad. Describe how Dr Malik should give the students the right to withdraw.[2]
(b)Explain why the right to withdraw is especially important in this study.[2]
Show answer
(a) Before starting she should tell them clearly that they can stop answering at any time, without giving a reason and without any penalty, and that they can ask for their completed questionnaire to be removed and destroyed afterwards.
1 mark: told before and during they may leave at any time without penalty/reason. 1 mark: can also withdraw their data afterwards.
(b) Questions about exam stress may upset some students, and as school pupils they may feel pressure to obey an adult researcher, so they need to know they can stop if they feel uncomfortable.
1 mark: sensitive topic may cause distress. 1 mark: young participants / power imbalance with researcher or teacher.
Q4Human participants · Core · Paper 2 style · 2 marks
(a)Explain the difference between confidentiality and privacy as ethical guidelines.[2]
Show answer
(a) Confidentiality means participants' personal information and results must not be shared or published in a way that identifies them. Privacy means participants should not be observed or asked about things in situations where they would expect not to be watched, unless they have agreed.
1 mark each for a correct explanation of each term.
Q5Human participants · Core · Paper 2 style · 4 marks
(a)Hypothetical study: a psychologist uses a confederate who pretends to drop her shopping in a busy street in Peshawar, and records whether passers-by help. Identify two ethical guidelines that may be broken in this study.[2]
(b)Suggest one way the researcher could reduce one of these ethical problems.[2]
Show answer
(a) Any two of: informed consent; deception; right to withdraw; debriefing (passers-by usually leave before they can be debriefed).
1 mark each for any two correct guidelines.
(b) After a passer-by has helped or walked past, a researcher could approach them, explain the true purpose (debrief) and offer them the chance to have their data removed.
1 mark: suggestion. 1 mark: explained as reducing a named problem.
Q6Human participants · Core · Paper 2 style · 3 marks
(a)State what is meant by 'protection from harm' in psychological research.[1]
(b)Hypothetical study: participants watch upsetting news clips about a flood before rating their mood. Suggest two ways the researcher could protect participants from harm.[2]
Show answer
(a) Participants should not be exposed to more physical or psychological risk than they would meet in everyday life, and should leave the study in the same state as they entered it.
B1.
(b) Any two of: warn participants beforehand about the content and get consent; screen out people who have experienced floods; show a cheerful clip afterwards to restore mood; full debrief with contact details for support; remind them they may stop watching at any time.
1 mark each for any two suitable ways.
Q7Human participants · Core · Paper 2 style · 3 marks
(a)State what is meant by 'deception' in psychological research.[1]
(b)Explain why researchers sometimes need to use deception.[2]
Show answer
(a) Misleading participants, or withholding information, about the true aims or procedure of a study.
B1: lying to or misleading participants (including withholding information).
(b) If participants knew the real aim they might change their behaviour to fit (demand characteristics), so deception keeps their behaviour natural and the results valid.
1 mark: participants would change their behaviour/demand characteristics. 1 mark: validity of findings.
Q8Human participants · Core · Paper 2 style · 3 marks
(a)Hypothetical study: a researcher wants to interview 9-year-old children in a Hyderabad primary school about bullying. Identify who must give consent for the children to take part.[1]
(b)Explain one other ethical issue the researcher must consider in this study.[2]
Show answer
(a) Their parents or legal guardians (as well as permission from the school, and the children's own agreement).
B1: parent/guardian consent (accept head teacher as well but not alone).
(b) Protection from harm: talking about bullying may upset the children, so the researcher should use gentle questions, allow them to stop at any time, and make sure a teacher or counsellor is available afterwards.
1 mark: identifies an issue (harm, confidentiality vs safeguarding, right to withdraw, debriefing in simple language). 1 mark: explained in this context.
Q9Human participants · Standard · Paper 2 style · 6 marks
(a)Describe the ethical guidelines of confidentiality and debriefing. Use any examples to support your answer.[6]
Show answer
(a) Confidentiality: personal details and results must be kept secret and published anonymously, e.g. using participant numbers rather than names, storing questionnaires securely. In Baron-Cohen et al.'s study, participants' test scores would not be published with names. Debriefing: at the end of a study participants are told its true aim, any deception is explained, they are reassured and offered the chance to withdraw their data; e.g. Milgram introduced participants to the unharmed learner and explained the shocks were not real.
Up to 3 marks for each guideline: 1 for a definition, 1 for elaboration (how it is done), 1 for a relevant example (from a study or a suitable hypothetical one). Full marks require both guidelines and examples.
Q10Human participants · Standard · Paper 2 style · 4 marks
(a)Hypothetical study: a psychologist installs cameras in a hospital staff room in Karachi to record how nurses take breaks. The nurses agreed to take part in 'a study of working life' but were not told about the cameras. Explain which two ethical guidelines are most clearly broken.[4]
Show answer
(a) Privacy: a staff room is a private space where nurses would not expect to be filmed, so recording them there invades their privacy. Informed consent/deception: they agreed to a general study but were not told about the filming, so their consent was not fully informed and they were deceived about the procedure.
2 marks per guideline: 1 for naming it, 1 for explaining why it is broken in this scenario.
Q11Human participants · Standard · Paper 2 style · 4 marks
(a)Hypothetical study: an online questionnaire asks 300 university students in Islamabad about their use of social media late at night. Explain two ways the researcher should maintain confidentiality.[4]
Show answer
(a) Do not ask for names or student ID numbers – use code numbers so answers cannot be linked to individuals. Store the data on a password-protected computer and only report group results (e.g. averages), so no single student can be identified.
2 marks per way: 1 for the method, 1 for explaining how it protects identity. Accept: anonymous responses, coded IDs, secure storage, delete data after use, report only group data, do not share with university.
Q12Human participants · Standard · Paper 2 style · 3 marks
(a)State what is meant by 'presumptive consent'.[1]
(b)Explain one problem with using presumptive consent.[2]
Show answer
(a) Asking a group of people similar to the participants whether they would find the study acceptable; if they would, it is presumed the real participants would also consent.
B1.
(b) The people asked are not the actual participants, so individual participants may still object to what happened to them; they have not personally agreed to take part.
1 mark: real participants did not agree themselves. 1 mark: they may still feel upset/object once they find out.
Q13Human participants · Standard · Paper 2 style · 4 marks
(a)Hypothetical study: participants are paid PKR 2000 for a 2-hour study on reaction times. The researcher tells them they will only be paid if they complete the whole study. Explain why this is unethical.[2]
(b)Suggest how the researcher could change the payment arrangement to be ethical.[2]
Show answer
(a) It undermines the right to withdraw: participants may feel they cannot leave because they would lose the money, so they are pressured to continue even if uncomfortable.
1 mark: right to withdraw. 1 mark: explanation – payment is conditional, so participants feel forced to continue.
(b) Pay all participants the full amount (or pay for time spent) whether or not they complete the study, and make this clear at the start.
1 mark: payment not dependent on completing. 1 mark: participants told in advance.
Q14Human participants · Standard · Paper 2 style · 4 marks
(a)Hypothetical study: a researcher interviews adults in Quetta who have recently lost a family member, to investigate coping. Suggest two ethical precautions the researcher should take.[4]
Show answer
(a) Gain fully informed consent, explaining that the questions will be about their loss, and remind them they may stop at any time. Arrange support: provide contact details of a counsellor and end the interview gently with neutral questions, so participants are not left distressed.
2 marks per precaution: identified (1) + linked to the bereavement scenario (1). Accept: confidentiality of sensitive details, avoid probing questions, pilot the interview, trained interviewer, debrief.
Q15Human participants · Standard · Paper 2 style · 3 marks
(a)State what is meant by 'retrospective consent'.[1]
(b)Give an example of a study where retrospective consent would be appropriate, and explain why.[2]
Show answer
(a) Asking participants for their consent after they have taken part, usually during the debrief, when they know the true aims.
B1.
(b) A field experiment on helping in a market, where passers-by cannot be told beforehand without spoiling the study; afterwards they are told what happened and asked whether their data may be used.
1 mark: suitable example (field experiment, covert observation, deception study). 1 mark: explanation – prior consent would spoil natural behaviour.
Q16Human participants · Standard · Paper 2 style · 3 marks
(a)Explain the role of a cost–benefit analysis in deciding whether a study is ethical.[3]
Show answer
(a) Before approving a study, an ethics committee weighs the possible costs to participants (distress, deception, loss of privacy) against the benefits of the knowledge gained for society; if the benefits clearly outweigh the costs, and harm is minimised, the study may go ahead.
1 mark: weighing costs to participants. 1 mark: against benefits to society/knowledge. 1 mark: decision made by an ethics committee / study approved only if benefits outweigh costs.
Q17Human participants · Challenge · Paper 2 style · 6 marks
(a)Hypothetical study: Dr Khan tells half of a group of students in Lahore that they scored very low on an 'intelligence test' (false feedback) and then measures how long they persist at difficult puzzles. Explain two ethical guidelines broken in this study and describe what the debrief should include.[6]
Show answer
(a) Deception: students were given false information about their intelligence. Protection from harm: being told they are of low intelligence could lower self-esteem and cause distress beyond everyday life. The debrief should: explain the true aim (effect of feedback on persistence); state clearly that the feedback was false and not their real score; reassure them that their performance was normal; offer the chance to withdraw their data; give contact details for questions or support.
2 marks per guideline (named + explained in context) = 4. 2 marks for the debrief: must include that the feedback was false + one other feature (true aim, reassurance, withdraw data, contact).
Q18Human participants · Challenge · Paper 2 style · 4 marks
(a)Two researchers disagree about a planned covert observation of how people use their phones while walking in a shopping mall in Dubai. Researcher A says it is ethical; Researcher B says it is not. Explain one argument for each researcher.[4]
Show answer
(a) A: the mall is a public place where people expect to be seen by strangers, so observing them does not invade privacy; no names are recorded and no one is harmed, so it is acceptable to observe without consent. B: people have not given consent and cannot withdraw; if the observers note details such as appearance, or record the content of screens or conversations, this could invade privacy, and they cannot be debriefed.
2 marks for each researcher's argument: 1 for the point (public place/privacy; no consent/right to withdraw), 1 for development in the scenario.
Q19Human participants · Challenge · Paper 2 style · 4 marks
(a)Explain how the need for valid results can conflict with ethical guidelines. Use one example from a psychological study.[4]
Show answer
(a) To get valid results, participants often should not know the true aim, because knowing it could create demand characteristics. This conflicts with informed consent and deception guidelines. For example, Milgram told participants the study was about learning and that the shocks were real; if they had known it was about obedience and that no one was harmed, their behaviour would not have shown real obedience. So high validity was gained at an ethical cost (deception, distress).
1 mark: validity needs natural behaviour / avoid demand characteristics. 1 mark: conflicts with consent/deception. 1 mark: example from a study. 1 mark: explanation of the trade-off in that example.
Q20Human participants · Challenge · Paper 2 style · 5 marks
(a)Hypothetical study: a 3-year longitudinal study follows 150 teenagers in Rawalpindi to see how part-time work affects school grades. The researchers need to link each teenager's data across the three years. Explain how they could keep the data confidential while still linking it.[3]
(b)Explain one other ethical issue that is more of a problem in a longitudinal study than in a one-off study.[2]
Show answer
(a) Give each teenager a unique code number at the start, used on all questionnaires and records instead of names; keep a separate key linking names to codes in a locked or password-protected file that only the lead researcher can access; publish results only as group data and destroy the key at the end.
1 mark: code numbers instead of names. 1 mark: separate, secure key linking names and codes with restricted access. 1 mark: report group data only / destroy key / no identifiable details published.
(b) Consent must be renewed: the teenagers' circumstances change over three years and they may later wish to withdraw, so they should be reminded each year of their right to withdraw and asked to confirm consent (and their own consent sought when they become adults).
1 mark: issue (ongoing consent, withdrawal, long-term data storage, repeated testing stress). 1 mark: explained in a longitudinal context.
Q21Human participants · Challenge · Paper 2 style · 4 marks
(a)Hypothetical study: patients in a psychiatric ward in Lahore are asked to take part in a study of a new relaxation technique by the doctor who treats them. Explain two ethical problems with this procedure.[4]
Show answer
(a) Consent: patients with mental health problems may not fully understand the information, so their consent may not be truly informed; extra checks or a guardian's agreement may be needed. Right to withdraw/pressure: because the request comes from their own doctor, patients may feel they must agree or that their treatment will suffer if they refuse or leave the study.
2 marks per problem: 1 for naming it, 1 for linking it to the vulnerable patients and their doctor.
Q22Human participants · Challenge · Paper 2 style · 6 marks
(a)Describe the ethical guidelines of deception and the right to withdraw. Use any examples to support your answer.[6]
Show answer
(a) Deception: participants should not be misled about the aims or procedure unless it is necessary and is not likely to cause distress; any deception must be explained in the debrief. Example: in Andrade's study participants were not told about the surprise memory test, which was necessary so they would not rehearse the information, and was harmless. Right to withdraw: participants must be told they can leave at any time and remove their data, without penalty. Example: in Milgram's study the prods ('you have no other choice, you must go on') made it hard for participants to feel they could leave.
Up to 3 marks per guideline: definition (1), elaboration – when allowed / how given (1), example (1).
Q23Human participants · Challenge · Paper 2 style · 4 marks
(a)Hypothetical study: In a Multan university, a lecturer asks the students in her own class to take part in her study on memory. She says it is voluntary but records the names of those who refuse. Evaluate the ethics of this procedure, referring to two guidelines.[4]
Show answer
(a) Right to withdraw/voluntary participation: students may feel pressured to take part because their lecturer marks their work, and recording names of those who refuse suggests consequences, so participation is not truly voluntary. Confidentiality: recording names links individuals with their decision (and possibly their results), which should be kept anonymous. To be ethical, an independent person should recruit and no names of refusers should be kept.
2 marks per guideline: identified (1) + explained in scenario (1). Allow 1 of the 4 marks for a suitable improvement if one guideline is only weakly explained.
Q24Animal research · Core · Paper 2 style · 4 marks
(a)Identify two ethical guidelines that apply to research with animals.[2]
(b)Explain what is meant by the guideline of 'replacement'.[2]
Show answer
(a) Any two of: replacement; species and strain; number of animals; pain and distress; housing; reward, deprivation and aversive stimuli; anaesthesia, analgesia and euthanasia.
1 mark each for any two.
(b) Researchers should consider whether animals can be replaced with other methods, such as computer simulations, videos or recordings of animals, before using live animals.
1 mark: use alternatives where possible. 1 mark: example of an alternative.
Q25Animal research · Core · Paper 2 style · 2 marks
(a)Hypothetical study: a researcher plans to test maze learning in 60 rats, though a pilot study suggests 20 would give clear results. Explain which animal guideline is relevant.[2]
Show answer
(a) Number of animals: researchers should use the smallest number of animals needed to get meaningful results, so the researcher should use about 20 rats, not 60.
1 mark: number of animals (reduction). 1 mark: applied – use the minimum needed (fewer rats).
Q26Animal research · Standard · Paper 2 style · 3 marks
(a)Hypothetical study: pigeons are kept at 80% of their normal body weight so that they will work for food rewards in a learning experiment. Explain which ethical guideline this raises and how the researcher could meet it.[3]
Show answer
(a) Reward, deprivation and aversive stimuli: depriving animals of food can cause distress. The researcher should consider the species' normal feeding pattern, use the minimum deprivation needed, use highly preferred food treats as rewards instead, and monitor the birds' health.
1 mark: names guideline. 1 mark: explains the problem (deprivation causes distress/harm). 1 mark: suitable way to minimise it.
Q27Animal research · Standard · Paper 2 style · 4 marks
(a)Hypothetical study: young monkeys are housed alone in small cages during a study of learning. Explain why this breaks the guideline on housing.[2]
(b)Explain how poor housing could also reduce the validity of the study's results.[2]
Show answer
(a) Monkeys are social animals; housing them alone in small cages can cause stress and abnormal behaviour, so they should be kept in suitable social groups with enough space and enrichment.
1 mark: social species/needs company or space. 1 mark: isolation/crowding causes distress; suggest appropriate housing.
(b) Stressed, isolated monkeys may learn or behave differently from normal monkeys, so the learning measured would reflect the effects of stress rather than normal ability.
1 mark: stress changes behaviour. 1 mark: results not representative/confounded.
Q28Animal research · Standard · Paper 2 style · 2 marks
(a)Explain the guideline on 'species and strain' when researchers select animals for a study.[2]
Show answer
(a) Researchers should choose a species that is suited to the research purpose and that is likely to suffer least, considering the animals' background (e.g. bred for research vs caught in the wild); endangered species should not be used unless the research benefits their conservation.
1 mark: choose species suited to the aim and least likely to suffer. 1 mark: extra detail (wild-caught or endangered species, knowledge of the species' needs).
Q29Animal research · Challenge · Paper 2 style · 6 marks
(a)Describe the animal ethical guidelines of 'pain and distress' and 'anaesthesia, analgesia and euthanasia'. Use any examples to support your answer.[6]
Show answer
(a) Pain and distress: researchers should avoid or minimise pain, suffering and lasting harm to animals; any procedure causing distress must be justified by the value of the research and requires approval, e.g. a study using mild electric shocks must use the weakest shock that works and monitor the animal. Anaesthesia, analgesia and euthanasia: animals must be given appropriate anaesthetic during painful procedures and painkillers afterwards; if an animal suffers lasting pain it must be humanely killed by a trained person using an approved method, e.g. rats after brain surgery receive pain relief and are monitored.
Up to 3 marks per guideline: definition (1), elaboration (1), example (1).
Q30Animal research · Challenge · Paper 2 style · 4 marks
(a)Hypothetical study: a researcher studies fear learning in 12 zebrafish, which are bred in the laboratory, live in a large group tank, and are briefly startled by a tap on the tank. Evaluate whether this study meets two animal ethical guidelines.[4]
Show answer
(a) Housing: met – the fish live in a large group tank, suitable for a social species, which reduces stress. Pain and distress: largely met – the startle is brief and mild rather than painful, though repeated startles could still cause stress, so the number of trials should be kept low. (Also: species – lab-bred fish rather than wild; number – only 12 used.)
2 marks per guideline: 1 for a judgement (met/not met), 1 for justification from the scenario. Accept replacement, species, number, aversive stimuli.
Similar questions
Questions that test the same subtopic in different years, grouped so you can work on one skill at a time.
References only: find each question in its paper (official link where available, otherwise through your school).
Human participantsBanker13 questions · 9/9 sessions
